Alternative Culture Medium for Fungi Essay

Scope and Delimitation This study is focused on how to produce ointment out of banana and papaya fruit peelings extract to help avoiding fungal infections. It must be done within a laboratory. The place must be conducive for only a matter of years. This study builds upon on how to lessen fungal infection. We only used 200g of chopped fruit peels (banana and papaya), 1.5 distilled water, 3 gulaman bars and etc. This product efficiency must estimate three trials having three replication each. After three trials that the study is not proved, it will be considered failure. The paper covers five important chapters namely: the problem and its background, theoretical concept, methodology, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data and summary, conclusion and recommendation that will explain further this study. This product diminishing fungal infection concluded that it must be solve first the basic reason for the occurrence of fungal infections produced by the combination of chemicals. These chemicals are studied to produce bad effects to the consumers of this product and may lead to allergy when it is not resolved for longer time. Chapter II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Review of related Literature Studies conducted by different researches were proved to support this investigatory project. Naomi (2012), when I was a child I suffered with mild eczema. It slowly diminished, but as an adult I still have sensitive skin which is prone to developing dry areas. As a result, looking after my skin is very important to me and I am constantly on the lookout for new skincare products which may be suited to my troublesome skin. One such product that I recently discovered is the cult beauty classic, Papaya (or pawpaw) Ointment. PURE’s Papaya Ointment has become a must-have in Australia, where it originates from, and is becoming increasingly popular in the UK and Europe because of its skin healing properties. The science behind the sauce is this†¦ The papaya fruit which this ointment contains is extremely rich in nutrients, and due to its anti-inflammatory properties has been used throughout Australian history to treat skin complaints. The skin’s pH naturally sits at a lightly acidic 5.5 (known as the skin’s acid mantle), but this can be made more alkaline by shower gels and soaps, which in turn can irritate the skin. Papaya ointment helps to hydrate the skin and bring the pH level back down to an appropriate level, using the probiotics that are used to ferment the papaya before it is made into ointment. PURE Papaya Ointment is petrochemical-free and contains only natural ingredients, so there’s nothing nasty and chemically in it to cause any irritation. All the ingredients are carefully chosen for their beneficial properties too. For instance, Shea Butter, Jojoba Oil and Macadamia Oil are intensely moisturizing and nourishing, Calendula is anti-fungal which helps to prevent some skin diseases, Vitamin E helps to heal and protect the skin and Beeswax is insoluble in water so forms a protective barrier on the skin. Because of its healing properties and because it is so nourishing, PURE Papaya Oi ntment has an endless list of uses. I have been using it for weeks now, and I have found it to be invaluably versatile. The backs of my hands are naturally very dry, which is only made worse by hot showers and using cleaning products, which often cause the skin to crack. Using the ointment as a moisturizer has softened the skin on my hands and has stopped them chapping, which I am so, so happy about. I’ve also been massaging it into my cuticles on a regular basis to condition them, which has made my nails look a lot better. I used it to calm an insect bite last week too, and as a lip balm when I accidentally bit my lip and made it sore. PURE also state that the ointment can be used to soothe nappy rash, sun burn or weather-irritated skin, to moisten sore nipples caused by breastfeeding, to soften calluses, as skin protection by runners or hill-walkers, to soothe skin after shaving or epilating, as a natural hair styling wax and much more. The product is also very popular with make-up artists, who use it as a base for make-up and on the lips of models as, because it doesn’t contain petroleum jelly, it doesn’t melt or sweat under hot lights. PURE sell three different sized containers of Papaya Ointment, which can also be bought in bundles. The 25g squeezy tube pictured costs  £9.99 and is the perfect size to carry with you in your handbag. For  £19.99 you can get a large 100g tube, or for  £35.99 there’s a 200g jar of ointment available, both of which are a great size for the bathroom cabinet or for use by make-up artists. If you want to try PURE Papaya Ointment for yourself, visit the PURE Papaya website here. After featuring in their Must Haves Beauty Kit, PURE recently teamed up with BeTrousse to offer a 20% discount on their products. The Difficulties of fruit dealers, it’s not different from other market dealers in a certain way. Commonly, problem occurs when delivering it results of disadvantages. For example, traffic, road constructions, and even weather disturbances. All of these are stated here in the review for the fact that these can be a reason of fruit spoilage. Choosing an appropriate fruit shouldn’t be lost here either. Fruits commonly seen in the market would be like apple, banana, oranges, mango, and any other fruits. And I say banana would easy to be eaten. The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant. The plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy and are often mistaken for trees, but their main or upright stem is actually a pseudo stem that grows 6 to 7.6 meters (20 to 24.9 ft.) tall, growing from a corm. Banana is a staple starch for many tropical populations. The flesh can vary in texture from firm to mushy. Both skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. Bananasà ¢â‚¬â„¢ flavor is due, amongst other chemicals, to isoamyl acetate which is one of the main constituents of banana oil. Banana hearts are used as vegetables in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or steamed with dips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods. The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible. Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly disposable food containers or as â€Å"plates† in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries and may be also used as umbrellas when the pseudo stems are tied together to form a floatation device only in regions where banana grows. The tender core of the banana plant’s trunk is also used in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, and notably in the Burmese dish mohinga (rice noodles in fish soup) Banana peel may also have capability to extract heavy metal contamination from river water, similar to other purification materials. (Most of it is taken from Wikipedia) Papaya with the scientific name, Carica papaya is a common fruit to be found in tropical countries. It is a succulent fruit of the family Caricaceas. Papayas are usually grown from seed. Their development is rapid, fruit being produced before the end of the first year. Under favorable conditions, a papaya plant may live for five years or more. Papaya is oval in shape and the colour of the skin is green if unripe. It will turn to green yellowish when it is ripe. The flesh of papaya is white before maturity, turns to a rich orange-yellow or deep rose when ripe, with colour varying according to variety. Papaya fruit is sweet in taste, with an agreeable musky tang, which is more pronounced in some varieties and in some climates than in others. Papaya has been regarded as one of the most valuable tropical fruits that contains many biological active compounds. Filamentous fungi of 84 genera, represented by 234 species, were isolated in the period 1919–1977, from such library materials as books, paper, parchment, feather, textiles, animal and vegetable glues, inks, wax seals, moving pictures, magnetic tapes, microfilms, black and white photographs, papyrus, wood, and synthetic materials (in books). Thirty-four genera of fungi have been isolated in the air of three archives in Warsaw, Poland. Most of these have also been found in library materials. Based on 219 isolations from library materials, a list of 40 species of filamentous fungi has been provided for those species isolated with a frequency of three times or more. Despite 80 years of investigations into the microbiology of library materials there is still a substantial lack of information on fungi colonizing library materials in North and South America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Among the 84 genera and 234 species of filamentous fungi, 19% may be a source of different diseases caused by mycotoxins. So far though, nobody has labelled libraries ‘sick’ buildings. In addition, culture collections do not seem to acquire or retain strains isolated from library materials (e.g. IMI in Egham, UK, retains over 16 500 strains, yet none of these strains are isolated from library materials). Review of related Studies Moore-Landecker (1998), studied the fungi of mycology. At various points throughout history, fungi have been considered to be either plants or animals. It was finally concluded that fungi are neither plants nor animals, but are a distinct group. Fungi are now considered one of the five kingdoms into which all living organisms are classified. Fungi have a unique cellular structure and an unusual pattern of sexual reproduction. They may be single-celled or multicelled organisms (the great majority are multicelled), in which each cell contains a nucleus. Examples of fungi include puffballs, mushrooms, yeasts, and molds. Fungi have an unusual cellular structure in that the nuclei stream between cells, making it appear as if the cells have multiple nuclei. This cellular structure, along with their unique method of reproducing by forming spores, distinguishes the fungi from all other organisms. Fungi are heterotrophs, meaning they cannot produce their own food from inorganic matter (not de rived from living organisms). Fungi secrete enzymes that breakdown organic matter (derived from living organisms) outside their bodies. Their cells then absorb the products. The digestive activities of fungi are essential in the decomposition (breakdown) of organic material and the cycling of nutrients in nature. Some fungi, called saprobes, obtain nutrients from nonliving organic matter. Other fungi are parasites, meaning they obtain nutrients from the tissues of living host organisms. Toe jam (2007), studied that some Fungi cause a number of human, plant, and animal diseases, while the others provide numerous drugs (such as penicillin and other antibiotics), foods (e.g., various Mushrooms, Truffles and Morels, and various Yeasts which are used in bread, champagne, and beer). Other common Fungi are rusts, smuts, puffballs, molds, many Ascomycetes such as the agents of Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight. However, many other fungi are biotrophs, and in this role a number of successful groups form symbiotic associations with plants (including algae), animals (especially arthropods), and prokaryotes. Examples are lichens, mycorrhizae, and leaf and stem endophytes. Among the other well-known associations are fungal parasites of animals. Humans, for example, may succumb to diseases caused by Pneumocystis (a type of pneumonia that affects individuals with supressed immune systems), Coccidioides (valley fever), Ajellomyces (blastomycosis and histoplasmosis), and Cryptococcus. Lichens (1887), studied that some of the fungi familiar to people are used in fermentation, such as Saccharomyces sp., which can be used to make bread or wine and only can be seen with microscope. Some members of order Mucorales (Zygomycota) are used to make fermented soy beans. Rhizopus sp. that grows on old bread are also members of Zygomycota. Penicillin, widely used in medicine, is made from Penicillium sp., a member of Mitosporic fungi. Many edible fungi, such as Lentinusedodes (Berk.), Agaricus bisporus and auricularia, are members of Basidiomycota. In addition to their use as food and medicine, fungi are also important players in nature. Many fungi, such as wood-rotting fungi and Piloboous sp., participate in the decomposition process of bio remains or organic matters, accelerating the cycle and use of natural substances. Some fungi are parasitic and may cause diseases. For example, cordyceps sinensis is the host insect of Cordyceps sp. Ganoderma sp. lives on trees parasitically and causes damage to them. Many fungi form mutually-beneficial symbiotic relations with other life forms. For instance, lichens, commonly seen in the forests or woods, are symbiotic life forms consisting of fungi and algae. Root systems of a vast majority of seed plants and members of Endogonaceae may form endomycorrhiza relationship, which enhances the ability of plants to absorb nutrients from the soil. Many species of fungi form ectomycorrhiza relationship with plants. In short, fungi of various kinds play an important role in both natural ecosystems and our daily life. However, our knowledge of them is still quite limited. The book introduces members of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota in the hope that the general public can know more about them and more students can be inspired to join the research work of this biological field. Gauthier (2003), according to her that the children, especially during the summer time when they spend a lot of time outdoors, can often get scrapes on their knees and elbows. Carpet burns from sitting on the ground too long can also occur. Instead of using a commercially-sold ointment from the pharmacy, use a banana peel to alleviate the pain from the scrape and promote healing. Cut a small portion of the banana peel and rub the inside of the peel against the scrape or carpet burn. The inside of the banana peel acts as ointment to help heal the wound. Bobby Gene (1998), conducted an extract composition derived from the peel of a banana and the method for producing the extract composition. An aqueous solvent is combined with the peel of a banana. If the banana is unripe, a base is also added. The mixture is homogenized and allowed to react at least until a black supernatant appears. The entire slurry is filtered. The resulting extract is used alone or combined with a cream or ointment. Medicinal benefits of the extract include relief from pain, swelling, itching, bruising, wrinkles, and sunburn. Boyle (2003), studied that people can use papaya ointment to help sterilize and heal rashes, burns, and open cuts. It is also popular for treating dry skin, eczema, and other skin irritations. Some individuals find that it works to reduce skin blemishes, pimples, and acne. Basically, it can be used on any skin condition for which a person might otherwise apply another type of commercial antibiotic. It is also available as a lip balm to treat cracked, chapped, or peeling lips. To make papaya ointment, manufacturers ferment the fruit of the pawpaw and typically combine it with other stabilizing ingredients, such as petroleum jelly and preservatives. The thick, pale-yellow gel that is produced has a vague, sour odor. Some manufacturers combine the papaya ointment with other ingredients to enhance its skin-softening and healing properties and mask the unpleasant smell. For instance, coconut oil, aloe, or honey might be combined with pawpaw extract to create a product that encompasses the benefits of each while having a pleasant fragrance. Some individuals prefer a purer form of papaya ointment, and some retailers sell all-natural products containing no added preservatives or other ingredients. For those seeking the purest approach, the moist underside of the peel from a raw papaya actually contains a sticky substance that many claim has all the benefits of manufactured lotions. If a person is lucky enough to have regular access to pawpaw fruit, he or she can take advantage of the healing benefits by rubbing the peel directly onto the problem skin areas. As a caveat, some people might have a sensitivity to papaya or the ingredients used in the manufacture of papaya ointment. In that event, using the salve could actually cause additional, more serious skin irritation. Further, there is some evidence that papaya, especially when not completely ripened, could affect a woman’s ability to become pregnant. Consequently, individuals who are trying to become pregnant are advised against usingpapaya ointment. According to Hawks worth (1992), there are approximate a little 1.5 million described species of fungi. A little more than 400 of these species are known to cause disease in animals, and far fewer of these species will specifically cause disease in people. Many of the latter will only be superficial types of diseases that are more of a cosmetic than a health problem. Thus, there are not many species of fungi that are pathogenic to human that will be fatal. The study of Fungi as animal and human pathogens is medical mycology. There is also such a thing as veterinary mycology, but the types of diseases that are found in your pets often are the same as those that are found in people. Because of the rarity of human diseases caused by Fungi, most people have little, if any, knowledge of such diseases. The diseases of warm-blooded animals caused by fungi are known as mycoses. Although such diseases are relatively few, the fungi that cause them have a wide host as well as geographical range. Most of these diseases are not fatal, but once contracted; they may forever be a source of constant irritation and can lead to permanent scaring, which is why they are not such a pretty sight to view. The successful treatment of fungal diseases is more difficult than those caused by bacteria. Because bacteria are prokaryotes, the makeup of their cells are very different than our own eukaryotic cells and pharmaceutical products, such as antibiotics, are able to successfully destroy bacteria without harming our cells, tissues and organs. However, because fungi are eukaryotes, finding a treatment that will kill the fungus and not harm our own cells is more difficult. Thus, most chemical treatments are also toxic us as well as the fungus. The most widely used drug for treating systemic mycosis and other fungal infections that do not respond to other drugs is Amphotericin B. Azole drugs are also widely used, but these only inhibited fungal growth and do not kill the fungus. Conceptual Framework Hypothesis a.) Both Banana and papaya peels extract would be an alternative culture medium for fungi. b.) Only the banana peel extract will be the alternative culture medium for fungi c.) Only the papaya peel extract would be an alternative culture medium for fungi d.) Both banana and papaya peels extract will not be an alternative culture medium for fungi. Definition of Variables a.) Banana Bananas are the most popular fruit in the world. Members of the genus Musa (part of the family Musaceae), they are considered to be derived from the wild species Musa acuminata (AA) and Musa balbisiana (BB). It is believed that there are almost 1000 varieties of bananas in the world, subdivided in 50 groups. b.) Papaya Papaya is a luscious fruit that has been taken for granted. Papaya fruits are good sources of Vitamin A, B and C. It is a familiar meat tenderizer because for clearing fruit juices, on fermenting liquors, pre-shrinking the quality of wool and as soap for washing clothes. Papaya possesses medicinal values. c.) Fungi Fungi constitute one of the life kingdoms. Fungi are eukaryotic (eu=true; karyon=nucleus) organisms with a cell wall like plants, but they do not have chlorophyll. Fungi are not able to ingest their food like animals do, nor can they manufacture their own food the way plants do. Instead, fungi feed by absorption of nutrients from the surrounding environment. They accomplish this by growing through and within the substrate on which they are feeding. d.) Extract To withdraw (as a juice or fraction) by physical or chemical process or to treat with a solvent so as to remove a soluble substance. e.) Feasibility Capable of being used or dealt with successfully f.) Experiment An operation or procedure carried out under controlled conditions in order to discover an unknown effect or law, to test or establish a hypothesis, or to illustrate a known law g.) Potato dextrose agar Potato dextrose agar (BAM Media M127) is common microbiological growth media[->0] made from potato[->1] infusion[->2], and dextrose[->3]. Potato dextrose agar (abbreviated â€Å"PDA†) is the most widely used medium for growing fungi and bacteria which attack living plants or decaying dead plant matter. Potato Dextrose Agar is a nutrient rich media that mycelia thrive upon. h.) Fruit peels Peel, also known as rind or skin, is the outer protective layer of a fruit[->4] or vegetable[->5] which could be peeled off. The rind is usually the botanical[->6] exocarp[->7], but the term exocarp does also include the hard cases of nuts[->8], which are not named peels since they are not peeled off by hand or peeler, but rather shells because of their hardness. i.) Autoclave a device for sterilizing implements using steam at high temperature. Conceptual Framework Hypothesis a.) Both banana and papaya peels extract would be an alternative culture medium for fungi. b.) Only banana peel extract will be an alternative culture medium for fungi. c.) Only papaya peel extract would be an alternative culture medium for fungi. Definition of Variables Banana The banana plant is the largest herbaceous[->9] flowering plant. The plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy and are often mistaken for trees[->10], but their main or upright stem is actually apseudostem[->11] that grows 6 to 7.6 metres (20 to 24.9 ft.) tall, growing from a corm[->12]. Each pseudo stem can produce a single bunch of bananas. After fruiting, the pseudo stem dies, but offshoots may develop from the base of the plant. Many varieties of bananas are perennial Papaya The papaya is a large, tree[->13]-like plant[->14], with a single stem[->15] growing from 5 to 10 m (16 to 33 ft.) tall, with spirally arranged leaves[->16] confined to the top of the trunk[->17]. The lower trunk is conspicuously scarred[->18] where leaves and fruit were borne. The leaves are large, 50–70 cm (20–28 in) in diameter[->19], deeply palmately[->20] lobed, with seven lobes. Unusually for such large plants, the trees are dioeciously[->21]. The tree is usually unbranched, unless lopped. The flowers are similar in shape to the flowers of the Plumeria[->22], but are much smaller and wax[->23]-like. They appear on the axils[->24] of the leaves, maturing into large fruit – 15–45 cm (5.9–18 in) long and 10–30 cm (3.9–12 in) in diameter. The fruit is ripe[->25] when it feels soft (as soft as a ripe avocado or a bit softer) and its skin has attained amber to orange hue. Fungi A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic[->26] organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts[->27] and molds[->28] as well as the more familiar mushrooms[->29]. These organisms are classified as a kingdom[->30], Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria[->31]. One major difference is that fungal cells have cell walls[->32] that contain chitin[->33], unlike the cell walls of plants, which contain cellulose[->34]. These and other differences show that the fungi form a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor[->35] (a monophyletic group). This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similarmyxomycetes[->36] (slime molds) and omycetes[->37] (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology[->38], which is often regarded as a branch of botany[->39], even though genetic studies have shown that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. Potato dextrose agar Potato dextrose agar (BAM Media M127) and potato dextrose broth are common microbiological growth media[->40] made from potato[->41] infusion[->42], and dextrose[->43]. Potato dextrose agar (abbreviated â€Å"PDA†) is the most widely used medium for growing fungi and bacteria which attack living plants or decaying dead plant matter. Gulaman The gulaman jelly bars are used in the various Filipino refreshments or desserts such assago at gulaman (or gulaman at sago, commonly shortened to sago’t gulaman), buko pandan, agar flan, halo-halo[->44], different varieties of Filipino fruit salads, black gulaman, and red gulaman. CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK Review of related literature Studies conducted by different researches were proved to support this investigatory project. Fungi exist primarily as filamentous dikaryotic organisms. As part of their life cycle, fungi produce spores. In this electron micrograph of a mushroom gill, the four spores produced by meiosis (seen in the center of this picture) are carried on a club like sporangium (visible to the left and right). From these spores, haploid hyphae grow and ramify, and may give rise to asexual sporangia, special hyphae which produce spores without meiosis. The sexual phase is begun when haploid hyphae from two different fungal organisms meet and fuse. When this occurs, the cytoplasm from the two cells fuses, but the nuclei remain separate and distinct. The single hypha produced by fusion typically has two nuclei per â€Å"cell†, and is known as a dikaryon, meaning â€Å"two nuclei†. The dikaryon may live and grow for years, and some are thought to be many centuries old. Eventually, the dikaryon forms sexual sporangia in which the nuclei fuse into one, which then undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores, and the cycle, is repeated. Some fungi, especially the chytrids[->45] and zygomycetes, have a life cycle more like that found in many protists[->46]. The organism is haploid, and has no diploid phase, except for the sexual sporangium. A number of fungi have lost the capacity for sexual reproduction, and reproduce by asexual spores or by vegetative growth only. These fungi are referred to as Fungi Imperfecti, and include, among other members, the athlete’s foot and the fungus in bleu cheese. Other fungi, such as the yeasts, primarily reproduce through asexual fission, or by fragmentation — breaking apart, with each of the pieces growing into a new organism. Fungi are heterotrophic. Fungi are not able to ingest their food like animals do, nor can they manufacture their own food the way plants do. Instead, fungi feed by absorption of nutrients from the environment around them. They accomplish this by growing through and within the substrate on which they are feeding. Numerous hyphae network through the wood, cheese, soil, or flesh from which they are growing. The hyphae secrete digestive enzymes which break down the substrate, making it easier for the fungus to absorb the nutrients which the substrate contains. This filamentous growth means that the fungus is in intimate contact with its surroundings; it has a very large surface area compared to its volume. While this makes diffusion of nutrients into the hyphae easier, it also makes the fungus susceptible to desiccation and ion imbalance. But usually this is not a problem, since the fungus is growing within a moist substrate. Most fungi are saprophytes, feeding on dead or decaying material. This helps to remove leaf litter and other debris that would otherwise accumulate on the ground. Nutrients absorbed by the fungus then become available for other organisms which may eat fungi. A very few fungi actively capture prey, such as Arthrobotrys which snares nematodes on which it feeds. Many fungi are parasitic, feeding on living organisms without killing them. Ergot, corn smut, Dutch elm disease, and ringworm are all diseases caused by parasitic fungi. Mycorrhizae are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plants. Most plants[->47] rely on a symbiotic fungus to aid them in acquiring water and nutrients from the soil. The specialized roots which the plants grow and the fungus which inhabits them are together known as mycorrhizae, or â€Å"fungal roots†. The fungus, with its large surface area, is able to soak up water and nutrients over a large area and provide them to the plant. In return, the plant provides energy-rich sugars manufactured through photosynthesis. Examples of mycorrhizal fungi include truffles and Auricular IA, the mushroom which flavors sweet-and-sour soup. In some cases, such as the vanilla orchid[->48] and many other orchids, the young plant cannot establish itself at all without the aid of its fungal partner. In liverworts, mosses, lycophytes[->49], ferns, conifers, and flowering plants[->50], fungi form a symbiotic relationship with the plant. Because mycorrhizal associations are found in so many plants, it is thought that they may have been an essential element in the transition of plants onto the land. Fungi are classified within their own kingdom – The Kingdom Fungi, while some are in The Kingdom Protista. A fungus is neither a plant nor an animal. It is similar to a plant, but it has no chlorophyll and cannot make its own food like a plant can through photosynthesis. They get their food by absorbing nutrients from their surroundings. Kingdom Fungi includes mushrooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs, truffles, morels, molds, and yeasts, and thousands of other organisms and microorganisms. They range from microscopic single-celled organisms, such as yeast, to gigantic multicellular organisms. Many fungi play a crucial role in decomposition (breaking things down) and returning nutrients to the soil. They are also used in medicine, an example is the antibiotic[->51] penicillin, as well as in industry and food preparation. For a long time fungi were classified as plants, mainly because of their similar lifestyles – both are seen to grow in soil and are sessile (permanently attached; not moving). Plant and fungal cells both have a cell wall, while cells from the animal kingdom don’t. Fungi are thought to have diverged from the plant and animal kingdoms about one billion years ago. Mycology is the study of fungi – it is a branch of biology. A mycologist studies fungi’s genes, biochemical properties, their use to us as a source of food, their hallucinogenic, poisonous and pathogenic (ability to cause disease) properties. It was not until the 16th century, when the microscope was developed, that mycology became a well-established science. Review of related Studies Brendan (1986), conducted an extract composition derived from the peel of a banana and the method for producing the extract composition. An aqueous solvent is combined with the peel of a banana. If the banana is unripe, a base is also added. The mixture is homogenized and allowed to react at least until a black supernatant appears. The entire slurry is filtered. The resulting extract is used alone or combined with a cream or ointment. Medicinal benefits of the extract include relief from pain, swelling, itching, bruising, wrinkles, and sunburn. Hudson (1988), studied that papaya is a fruit that contains precious enzymes like chymopapain and papain that assist our digestion process. The enzymes specifically help to convert proteins from the food that we consume into amino acids. Recent research has shown how amino acids act as a key agent in various processes concerning our physical and mental health,including chemical reactions that take place in our bodies. As we grow older the production of digestive enzymes slows within our pancreas and stomach, and this causes the digestion of protein to become less effective. The result is an excess of undigested proteins that help fight the growth of the harmful bacteria within the gastrointestinal system and the absence of important amino acids that facilitate all vital chemical reactions. In order to maintain good health, it is absolutely essential to retain quality protein. The enzymes in papaya play a crucial role in this process. Proteolytic enzymes such as papain digest non-livi ng or inert proteins. Intestinal parasites are attacked and killed by papain as these parasites are made of protein. Research is being conducted in relation to the use of papain for relieving the side effects of cancer therapy. It is known to effectively ease side effects such as mouth sores and problems with swallowing following chemotherapy and radiation sessions. It prepares our body to fight cancer and strengthens our immune system as well. Fermented papaya enzymes are used by an Australian company known as Rochway to create a product called papaya35. This product is made out of organically grown papaya. Their probiotic papaya mixture has antioxidant properties that strongly resist harmful molecules in our bodies. Cancer, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and diabetes are all caused by these same harmful molecules. Numerous studies are being carried out on the benefits of papaya, and new benefits are being added to a long list. If you are interested in the current studies being conducted you can find more information at PubMed.gov. You’re likely to come across a useful papaya ointment if you search the market or alternatively, you can consume fresh papaya fruit. If you are seeking the therapeutic effects of consuming papaya, you may take note that ripe papaya contains chymopapain and papain (proteolytic enzymes) in lesser amounts than green papaya (as it has not ripened at this point). Strakosch 1943 experimental studies on the penetration of the following substances: lard, cod liver oil, olive oil, petrolatum, vaseline (Chesebrough), lanolin, petrolatum and lanolin to equal parts, â€Å"Aquaphor† (Duke), petrolatum plus five per cent cetyl alcohol, a base consisting of mannide monooleate-ceresin wax-petrolatum-mineral oil-lanolin, â€Å"Hydrosorb† (Abbott), rose water ointment USP., lecithin ointment, a base consisting of stearyl alcohol-mineral oil-water-petrolatum and a base consisting of liquid petrolatum-peanut oil-triethanolamine-stearic acidcetyl alcohol and water, were reported. The relative intensity of the penetration into the normal human skin of the different test substances listed in the order from the best to the worst penetration, as revealed by this study is as follows: the base consisting of: liquid petrolatum-peanut oil-steric acid-triethanolamine-acetyl alcohol and water; â€Å"Hydrosorb† (Abbott), â€Å"Aquaphor† (Dule), lard, cold liver oil, stearyl alcohol-mineral oil-water-petrolatum, lanolin, a base consisting of mannide monooleate-ceresin wax-petrolatum-mineral oil-lanolin, lecithin ointment, petrolatum and lanolin to equal parts, petrolatum plus five per cent cetyl alcohol, olive oil, rose water ointment, vaseline (Chesebrough), and finally petrolatum as such. [->0] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium [->1] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato [->2] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infusion [->3] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose [->4] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit [->5] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable [->6] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany [->7] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocarp [->8] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_%28fruit%29 [->9] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbaceous [->10] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree [->11] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudostem [->12] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corm [->13] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree [->14] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant [->15] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_stem [->16] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf [->17] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trunk_(botany) [->18] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scar [->19] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diameter [->20] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmate [->21] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioecious [->22] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumeria [->23] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax [->24] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axil [->25] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripening [->26] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote [->27] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast [->28] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold [->29] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushrooms [->30] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_(biology) [->31] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria [->32] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall [->33] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin [->34] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose [->35] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ancestor [->36] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxomycetes [->37] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomycetes [->38] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology [->39] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany [->40] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium [->41] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato [->42] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infusion [->43] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose [->44] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo-halo [->45] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/chytrids.html [->46] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/alllife/eukaryotasy.html [->47] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/plantae.html [->48] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/liliflorae/orchidales.html [->49] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/lycophyta/lycophyta.html [->50] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/anthophyta.html [->51] – http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/10278.php

Foucault Questions Essay

What are the limitations? 2. What distinctions can be made between the ordering and controlling of leprosy and the plague? 3. What does Foucault mean by â€Å"rituals of exclusion† and â€Å"†disciplinary projects†? 4. How does the panoptic mechanism differ from a dungeon? What are the principal characteristics of each? What are the goals of each? 5. What importance does Foucault attribute to â€Å"visibility†? What role do visibility and invisibility play in panoptic structures of power? . Foucault states, â€Å"The plague-stricken town, the panoptic establishment – the differences are important. † What are those differences and how are they important? 7. In describing Panopticism, Foucault is meticulous in tracing the historical evolution of the panopticon as a disciplinary mechanism. What is his purpose in doing so? Why is he so careful? 8. Outline the major historical events Foucault cites. With what example(s) does Foucault begin? With wh at does he end? 9. What does Foucault mean when he says that disciplinary projects moved from the margins of society to the center? What is meant by â€Å"margin†? What is meant by â€Å"center†? What is the significance of this transition of discipline from the margins to the center? 10. What does Foucault mean when he says that societies of antiquity were â€Å"societies of spectacle† and modern societies are â€Å"societies of surveillance†? What are the differences? What historical events created such differences?

Social Learning Theory Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social Learning Theory - Assignment Example This assignment discusses the Social Learning Theory developed by Berger, that primarily focuses upon that a child develops while observing the sequential patterns that go on around him/her. Thus, it is through modeling and repeating or doing things that are already done by others is an important way a child learns different behaviors and adopt certain attitudes. However, while observing and modeling, one feature that is in a continuous functioning state is the child’s own cognition. The cognition works in a way that if a child sees someone getting acknowledgement and rewards upon his behavior or deed, the child would him/herself like to receive the same kind of acknowledgement and appreciation from others. This desire leads the child to incorporate the same attitude in his daily practice so that he too can be socially recognized and accepted. Once the child gets success due to the modeled behavior, he learns to practice the same thing throughout his lifespan. The problem migh t occur when the child is not able to model the exact behavior to receive acknowledgement. In such a situation, he/she modifies the same behavior multiple times and in multiple ways as long as he might achieve success. In the same way, punishment and discouragement act as negative stimulators for the child not to adopt a certain behavior if someone else is punished on its basis. In conclusion, the researcher states that this further retains throughout the child’s lifetime shaping his personality in a particular direction.

Cultural Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cultural - Essay Example However, when the culture of an organization collides with the national values of a country, this means that the business faces the threat of being rejected. This paper argues that national culture is significant in international business because it may provide opportunities for growth or threats that may lead to the demise of the organizations. Ethics refer to the set of behaviours that are acceptable in the society. Different nations have different ethical values that influence how organizations conduct their business. For example, in the United States, it is ethical to treat all stakeholders in a business equally (Hall, 2003). Employees are given equal chances as managers to participate in making decisions. This national culture is an opportunity for international businesses; because it enables them to get ideas for development from all sources of information. National culture may also present threats to organizations that invest in countries where there are no clear ethical rules. For example, in the Asian market, there are no strict rules that prohibit individuals from taking bribes from others. This may be harmful to a European or American company that invests in this market; because the companies originate from countries where taking bribe is against the law (Hall, 2003). The companies may incur losses when they employ workers who take bribe and they may not be able to recover. The utilitarian theory argues that the acceptable ethical behaviour is the one that is beneficial to a high percentage of individuals in the country (Hall, 2003). This means that international businesses have to analyze the effects of their actions before implementing them. If the actions are not beneficial to more than half of the society, the organizations should avoid implementing them. National language and communication style also influences the success of international businesses. Hall (2003) argues that there are two main

Reflections on doing, being and becoming Assignment

Reflections on doing, being and becoming - Assignment Example The idea that was most interesting and which I would like to explore more is the part of doing as an occupation which many people have focused on much to the extent of destroying our planet and nature. This is of interest because of all the theories that have been put forward about the destruction of nature and the planet, no one has focused deeply on occupation being related to the act of doing which is driven by the notion of an individual’s being. If the being can be addressed in detail, then the doing in relation to occupation can be addressed as well. What additional questions or wonderings do you have about this? The explanation of being in the article has not really touched on psychological explanation and how whether a being can be changed or not and if it is changed, what kind of effect can it have on the becoming as well as doing of an individual. If the inner life of an individual can be changed, can it make an individual better, enable them make better choices and decisions or there will be no much effect felt or seen. Why, in your opinion, do you believe this warrants further discussion? The article itself has not delved deeply into the three aspects and they are all interconnected. If further research can be carried out in the aspect of being, then the results can be able to shed much insight into how to make the occupations of people better the planet rather than destroy them, or even enable them chose better occupations. The aspect of being is much more important than indicated in the article.

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 38

Ethics - Essay Example I had mixed feelings, since my expectations of the USA were not clearly defined. Nonetheless, I knew the years that lay ahead were going to be the most wonderful years of my life. The early days in America were memorable and life changing. Experiencing America in person was thrilling. This remains my best experience. The cultural diversity in America gave me a chance to meet new people from different parts of the world. I missed home, especially my family, and occasionally, I experienced loneliness. However, this had made me break away from my comfort zone and lead an independent life, adapting to a new culture. While in America, I received different treatment from different people. The level of politeness among students varied. Most students were polite to me; they offered to orientate me in my new school. However, a few were impolite. One of my worst experiences was when one student deliberately talked negatively about Koreans, to make me feel bad. This taught me that not all people are going to treat you in the same way. In addition, the level of politeness of a person depends on their personality. Therefore, this personality trait is not existent in every person, so I learnt to understand those who treated me in an impolite way. I experienced the aspect of equality in America in different measures. In terms of education, equal opportunities are provided to both native and international students. However, in few cases, international students had trouble securing jobs in America. However, equality in all aspects is highly upheld in America, as the constitution demands, and this is rarely breached. American culture portrays more openness than Korean culture, which is largely conservative. Here, there is less discrimination on grounds of gender and sex, and there is more freedom of expression. It is normal for expectant students to come to school, and students freely express

Puerto Rico Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Puerto Rico - Essay Example Through my research, I gained information on some places around the world which tourists categorize to be the most breathtaking amazing sites. My academic course incorporates the subject of tourism; the event enriched my understanding of Puerto Rico as a tourist location. The event is also related to my academic course in the sense that, it has served as a learning resource to me. This event, relates to the holidays we are currently having, in that, it will be a destination site during the holiday. Watching the event is more like watching Puerto Rico being advertised as a tourist destination site. This program relates to both international and global issue since people all around the world are interested with phenomenal tourist site such as Puerto Rico. Since the program acts like an advertisement tool, it influences global tourism (Dietz 87). Watching the event, made me remember, the first experience I had when I was touring the Caribbean Islands. I reminisced over the thrilling feelings I had some years back when I walked on white sandy beaches for the first time. In particular, I appreciate the fact that I got first hand and detailed information on Puerto Rico. The program, showed spectacular features on the landscape, such as different kinds of coral reefs, which I had never come through when researching on tourist sites. Through the program, I gained more knowledge on Puerto Rico’s history. The information on the landscape made me appreciate and understand some geography, because it talked of how the various physical features on the island came to be formed. (Dietz

What is Preferred in IT Job Market, a Degree or a Certification Essay

What is Preferred in IT Job Market, a Degree or a Certification - Essay Example Technical as well as logical aptitudes are urbanized and experienced. It is an outstanding chance for anybody who wants to perk up their resume. On the other hand, a certification is certainly learning on its own. People who embrace certifications must check their capabilities in particular parts. From side to side, the IT certification lessons for learners must appreciate how to be capable in that exact area or they can not go by the exams. Formerly, when the certification is received it shows to employers that the ability requisite to carry out in that particular area has been reached up to the master level. Each certification has its own role plus it is hard for a degree to focal point on such ideas and objectives because there are a lot of dissimilar kinds. IT certifications are continually altering and in turn to remain with the IT business, certifications have to be rehabilitated. A transitory certification exam merely implies that convinced abilities which have been mastered b y the learner. In penetrating for a respond to know what it better, a discussion was made with a local business proprietor of an internet services corporation. He said that it came downward from the experience. Arguing the topic with him, he said that there were citizens who detained one or the other and still couldn't be careful of the everyday jobs. This exacting example guides to the consideration that employers are merely worried with presentation. Through discussions a discussion with an IT Manager, he stated that it depended ahead the task, when insertion for the significance on the degree or certification. He said in employing a programmer, the degree is even more valuable owing to conditions of an entity skill but for a position such as PC manager, a certification would create additional equal to date experiences. To respond which is better a degree or a certification is a bit difficult because it seems to differ in most of the situation. Some of the employers like to see it but most of them just want to know if an individual can carry out. On the other hand, some corporations won't even look at the resume without one or the other. Employers want the individuals who can get the task done and do it in the most well-organized and cost effectual way. Companies want workers who they can depend ahead, belief and with guarantee of taking care of its customers. A degree is frequently at times gives out as a foot in the entrance for conference but that unaccompanied might not ground up with the job. Possessing the right ability and know how will assist to induce company that an entity are the one for the situation. In the IT industry it is significant to keep up because it is not a place for a still profession but it endorses alter and steady education. This may mean that IT certifications are important to job safety and increase in this field. The IT certification initially is a ticket to get into the job market. This will permit an individual to go into the work force earlier plus gaining the hands on experience which may not be obtainable throughout a degree. Employers want to see presentation and a certification will provide individual the preparation required to do the job. Taking the idea to follow together will give IT professionals an outstanding resume to marketplace to companies. Once a conference or probable endorsement happens than the next step it to sell your skills. One should be ready to face the competition through exclusive aptitudes whether that is through the teaching or excellent experience. Success is deliberate in a different way but both ways can offer

Outcomes of divorce on children Essay Example for Free

Outcomes of divorce on children Essay Divorce, while lengthy and sometimes hurtful, can be beneficial to the children and spouses. Children coming from situations of abuse and neglect actually benefit from the separation of parents. These parents may remain single or remarry, still studies have shown that the children have and are thriving in a way they were unable to before the separation. While there are exceptions to every rule, the divorce has become a positive alternative in some families. Children coming from homes where violence and abuse is an ordinary occurrence, are not only victims in their childhood, but are continually affected as adults. According to the Traumatogentic model, proposed by Dr. Finkelor (1987), the abused child produces a number of different psychological effects and long term behavioral changes. Leaving a child in such a situation would not only cause continual physical harm, but also the long term psychological problems. In such cases divorce is encouraged for the benefit of both the spouse being abused and the child involved. After divorce children have been shown to thrive in the new, abuse-free environment; showing improvements in their education, attitude, and overall social development. Another factor of positive divorce is the presence of neglect in the household. Accumulating information from the Attachment Theory proposed by John Bowlby in 1980, researchers have compiled evidence of the side effects of the lack of a secure attachment to caregivers at an early age. Because of rejection and inconsistent attention, among other forms of neglect, these children have â€Å"developed anxious, insecure or disorganized/disoriented attachments with their primary care providers† (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services). With two parents this neglect from one or both can turn to a feeling of hatred for one or both parents from the child. â€Å"This lack of secure attachment relationship then hinders the infants or toddlers ability to explore his/her environment and develop feelings of competence† (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services). Divorce here is an apparent necessity to the children involved. Based on the long term effects of neglect from numerous studies, children are better with one parent that cares for them or a non-biological parent than two that do not accurately care for the child’s needs. While being exposed to the process of divorce, children have become aware that struggle is a normal part of marriage and have been able to use their parents as examples. In a study done by â€Å"Psychology Today†, twenty-eight college students were interviewed to see how their parents divorce influenced their own current and past relationships. The group was divided into three different groups according to their responses. The first group were named the â€Å"Modelers†. This group mimicked their parents relationship, continuing to be dysfunctional. The second group were the â€Å"Strugglers†, this group showed a cautiousness in trusting others and hesitancy in opening up to others. The third were the â€Å"Reconcilers†. These students strove to learn from their parents mistakes and the problems they witnessed, to create more successful relationships in their own lives. The group that the students fell into also had to do with the type of relationship they had with their parents before the breakup and after. It was found that the â€Å"modeler† group had â€Å"limited insight† to the problems that their parents were going through. The â€Å"strugglers† lost touch with their parents and received little support after the divorce. In contrast, â€Å"reconcilers† kept touch with their parents and were given positive reinforcement† (H. Parker). In these cases the students learned from their parents divorce by example. Neither regretting their parent’s decision nor harboring ill feelings toward them for the separation. Good communication between parents and children was key to a happy outcome post-divorce. In an interview done by Dr.  Joyce Arditti of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, fifty-eight young women who were raised by only their mother were asked their feelings on the situation. The women all agreed that the relationship between themselves and their mothers could never be closer. The relationships evolved into that of a best friendship rather than an authority figure and child. Although they are not the traditional mother-daughter relationships, they still provide support for the child in all the ways that a typical mother could and even go beyond that to the type of support that only a friend could provide. Growing up in a family with both parents present, was somewhat less than picture perfect in my own experiences. As a child, hearing constant arguing from both parents caused me to have a bias opinion on the parent doing the least amount of yelling or the parent that was fighting for my cause. This fighting being a constant in my life, made me wish that they would divorce, but because of personal religious reasons they have not. This, in turn, causes me to have apprehensions about marriage and doubt some of the stipulations that I was raised to associate with marriage. Divorce in my case would benefit my relationship with both parents and ease my own apprehensions about marriage. Divorce will always be a tough situation for the parents and children involved, but that does not mean that it has to be a negative one. The term divorce has been, in recent years, coined with a negative connotation. This however, is out-dated and one sided. With the recent studies and the help of psychologists, the term divorce has become somewhat less than taboo in our society today.

Obesity and Fast Food Essay Example for Free

Obesity and Fast Food Essay January 2009 Abstract. We investigate the health consequences of changes in the supply of fast food using the exact geographical location of fast food restaurants. Specifically, we ask how the supply of fast food affects the obesity rates of 3 million school children and the weight gain of over 1 million pregnant women. We find that among 9th grade children, a fast food restaurant within a tenth of a mile of a school is associated with at least a 5. 2 percent increase in obesity rates. There is no discernable effect at . 25 miles and at . 5 miles. Among pregnant women, models with mother fixed effects indicate that a fast food restaurant within a half mile of her residence results in a 2. 5 percent increase in the probability of gaining over 20 kilos. The effect is larger, but less precisely estimated at . 1 miles. In contrast, the presence of non-fast food restaurants is uncorrelated with obesity and weight gain. Moreover, proximity to future fast food restaurants is uncorrelated with current obesity and weight gain, conditional on current proximity to fast food. The implied effects of fast-food on caloric intake are at least one order of magnitude smaller for mothers, which suggests that they are less constrained by travel costs than school children. Our results imply that policies restricting access to fast food near schools could have significant effects on obesity among school children, but similar policies restricting the availability of fast food in residential areas are unlikely to have large effects on adults. The authors thank John Cawley and participants in seminars at the NBER Summer Institute, the 2009 AEA Meetings, the ASSA 2009 Meetings, the Federal Reserve Banks of New York and Chicago, The New School, the Tinbergen Institute, the Rady School at UCSD, and Williams College for helpful comments. We thank Cecilia Machado, Emilia Simeonova, Johannes Schmeider, and Joshua Goodman for excellent research assistance. We thank Glenn Copeland of the Michigan Dept. of Community Health, Katherine Hempstead and Matthew Weinberg of the New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services, Craig Edelman of the Pennsylvania Dept. of Health, Rachelle Moore of the Texas Dept. of State Health Services, and Gary Sammet and Joseph Shiveley of the Florida Department of Health for their help in accessing the data. The authors are solely responsible for the use that has been made of the data and for the contents of this article. 1 1. Introduction The prevalence of obesity and obesity related diseases has increased rapidly in the U. S. since the mid 1970s. At the same time, the number of fast food restaurants more than doubled over the same time period, while the number of other restaurants grew at a much slower pace according to the Census of Retail Trade (Chou, Grossman, and Saffer, 2004). In the public debate over obesity it is often assumed that the widespread availability of fast food restaurants is an important determinant of the dramatic increases in obesity rates. Policy makers in several cities have responded by restricting the availability or content of fast food, or by requiring posting of the caloric content of the meals (Mcbride, 2008; Mair et al. 2005). But the evidence linking fast food and obesity is not strong. Much of it is based on correlational studies in small data sets. In this paper we seek to identify the causal effect of increases in the supply of fast food restaurants on obesity rates. Specifically, using a detailed dataset on the exact geographical location restaurant establishments, we ask how proximity to fast food affects the obesity rates of 3 million school children and the weight gain of over 1 million pregnant women. For school children, we observe obesity rates for 9th graders in California over several years, and we are therefore able to estimate cross-sectional as well fixed effects models that control for characteristics of schools and neighborhoods. For mothers, we employ the information on weight gain during pregnancy reported in the Vital Statistics data for Michigan, New Jersey, and Texas covering fifteen years. 1 We focus on women who have at least two children so that we can follow a given woman across two pregnancies and estimate models that include mother fixed effects. The design employed in this study allows for a more precise identification of the effect of fast-food on obesity compared to the previous literature (summarized in Section 2). First, we observe information on weight for millions of individuals compared to at most tens of thousand in the standard data sets with weight information such as the NHANES and the BRFSS. This substantially increases the power of our estimates. Second, we exploit very detailed geographical location information, including distances The Vital Statistics data reports only the weight gain and not the weight at the beginning (or end) of the pregnancy. One advantage of focusing on a longitudinal measure of weight gain instead of a measure of weight in levels is that only the recent exposure to fast-food should matter. 1 2 of only one tenth of a mile. By comparing groups of individuals who are at only slightly different distances to a restaurant, we can arguably diminish the impact of unobservable differences in characteristics between the two groups. Third, we have a more precise idea of the timing of exposure than many previous studies: The 9th graders are exposed to fast food near their new school from September until the time of a spring fitness test, while weight gain during pregnancy pertains to the 9 months of pregnancy. While it is clear that fast food is generally unhealthy, it is not obvious a priori that changes in the availability of fast food should be expected to have an impact on health. On the one hand, it is possible that proximity to a fast food restaurant simply leads local consumers to substitute away from unhealthy food prepared at home or consumed in existing restaurants, without significant changes in the overall amount of unhealthy food consumed. On the other hand, proximity to a fast food restaurant could lower the monetary and non-monetary costs of accessing unhealthy food. In addition, proximity to fast food may increase consumption of unhealthy food even in the absence of any decrease in cost if individuals have self-control problems. Ultimately, the effect of changes in the supply of fast food on obesity is an empirical question. We find that among 9th grade children, the presence of a fast-food restaurant within a tenth of a mile of a school is associated with an increase of about 1. 7 percentage points in the fraction of students in a class who are obese relative to the presence at. 25 miles. This effect amounts to a 5. 2 percent increase in the incidence of obesity. Since grade 9 is the first year of high school and the fitness tests take place in the Spring, the period of fast-food exposure is approximately 30 weeks, implying an increased caloric intake of 30 to 100 calories per school-day. The effect is larger in models that include school fixed effects. Consistent with highly non–linear transportation costs, we find no discernable effect at . 25 miles and at . 5 miles. The effect is largest for Hispanic students and female students. Among pregnant women, we find that a fast food restaurant within a half mile of a residence results in 0. 19 percentage points higher probability of gaining over 20kg. This amounts to a 2. 5 percent increase in the probability of gaining over 20 kilos. The effect is larger at . 1 miles, but in contrast to the results for 9th graders, it is still discernable at . 25 miles and at . 5 miles. The increase in weight implies an increased caloric intake of 1 to 4 3 calories per day in the pregnancy period. The effect varies across races and educational levels. It is largest for African American mothers and for mothers with a high school education or less. It is zero for mothers with a college degree or an associate’s degree. Overall, our findings suggest that increases in the supply of fast food restaurants have a significant effect on obesity, at least in some groups. However, it is in principle possible that our estimates reflect unmeasured shifts in the demand for fast food. Fast food chains are likely to open new restaurants where they expect demand to be strong, and higher demand for unhealthy food is almost certainly correlated with higher risk of obesity. The presence of unobserved determinants of obesity that may be correlated with increases in the number of fast food restaurants would lead us to overestimate the role of fast food restaurants. We can not entirely rule out this possibility. However, three pieces of evidence lend some credibility to our interpretation. First, we find that observable characteristics of the schools are not associated with changes in the availability of a fast food in the immediate vicinity of a school. Furthermore, we show that within the geographical area under consideration, fast food restaurants are uniformly distributed over space. Specifically, fast food restaurants are equally likely to be located within . 1, . 25, and . 5 miles of a school. We also find that after conditioning on mother fixed effects, the observable characteristics of mothers that predict high weight gain are negatively (not positively) related to the presence of a fast-food chain, suggesting that any bias in our estimates may be downward, not upward. While these findings do not necessarily imply that changes in the supply of fast food restaurants are orthogonal to unobserved determinants of obesity, they are at least consistent with our identifying assumption. Second, while we find that proximity to a fast food restaurant is associated with increases in obesity rates and weight gains, proximity to non fast food restaurants has no discernible effect on obesity rates or weight gains. This suggests that our estimates are not just capturing increases in the local demand for restaurant establishments. Third, we find that while current proximity to a fast food restaurant affects current obesity rates, proximity to future fast food restaurants, controlling for current proximity, has no effect on current obesity rates and weight gains. Taken together, the weight of the 4 evidence is consistent with a causal effect of fast food restaurants on obesity rates among 9th graders and on weight gains among pregnant women. The results on the impact of fast-food on obesity are consistent with a model in which access to fast-foods increases obesity by lowering food prices or by tempting consumers with self-control problems. 2 Differences in travel costs between students and mothers could explain the different effects of proximity. Ninth graders have higher travel costs in the sense that they are constrained to stay near the school during the school day, and hence are more affected by fast-food restaurants that are very close to the school. For this group, proximity to fast-food has a quite sizeable effect on obesity. In contrast, for pregnant women, proximity to fast-food has a quantitatively small (albeit statistically significant) impact on weight gain. Our results suggest that a ban on fast-foods in the immediate proximity of schools could have a sizeable effect on obesity rates among affected students. However, a similar attempt to reduce access to fast food in residential neighborhoods would be unlikely to have much effect on adult consumers. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we review the existing literature. In Section 3 we describe our data sources. In Section 4, we present our econometric models and our empirical findings. Section 5 concludes. 2. Background While the main motivation for focusing on school children and pregnant women is the availability of geographically detailed data on weight measures for a very large sample, they are important groups to study in their own right. Among school aged children 6-19 rates of overweight have soared from about 5% in the early 1970s to 16% in 1999-2002 (Hedley et al. 2004). These rates are of particular concern given that children who are overweight are more likely to be overweight as adults, and are increasingly suffering from diseases associated with obesity while still in childhood (Krebs and Jacobson, 2003). At the same time, the fraction of women gaining over 60 2 Consumers with self-control problems are not as tempted by fatty foods if they first have to incur the transportation cost of walking to a fast-food restaurant. Only when a fast-food is right near the school, the temptation of the fast-food looms large. For an overview of the role of self-control in economic applications, see DellaVigna (2009). A model of cues in consumption (Laibson, 2001) has similar implications: a fast-food that is in immediate proximity from the school is more likely to trigger a cue that leads to over-consumption. 5 pounds during pregnancy doubled between 1989 and 2000 (Lin, forthcoming). Excessive weight gain during pregnancy is often associated with higher rates of hypertension, C-section, and large-for-gestational age infants, as well as with a higher incidence of later maternal obesity (Gunderson and Abrams, 2000; Rooney and Schauberger, 2002; Thorsdottir et al. , 2002; Wanjiku and Raynor, 2004). 3 Moreover, Figure 1 shows that the incidence of low APGAR scores (APGAR scores less than 8), an indicator of poor fetal health, increases sharply with weight gain above about 20 kilograms. Critics of the fast food industry point to several features that may make fast food less healthy than other types of restaurant food (Spurlock, 2004; Schlosser, 2002). These include low monetary and time costs, large portions, and high calorie density of signature menu items. Indeed, energy densities for individual food items are often so high that it would be difficult for individuals consuming them not to exceed their average recommended dietary intakes (Prentice and Jebb, 2003). Some consumers may be particularly vulnerable. In two randomized experimental trials involving 26 obese and 28 lean adolescents, Ebbeling et al. (2004) compared caloric intakes on â€Å"unlimited fast food days† and â€Å"no fast food days†. They found that obese adolescents had higher caloric intakes on the fast food days, but not on the no fast food days. The largest fast food chains are also characterized by aggressive marketing to children. One experimental study of young children 3 to 5 offered them identical pairs of foods and beverages, the only difference being that some of the foods were in McDonald’s packaging. Children were significantly more likely to choose items perceived to be from McDonald’s (Robinson et al.2007). Chou, Grossman, and Rashad (forthcoming) use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys (NLS) 1979 and 1997 cohorts to examine the effect of exposure to fast food advertising on overweight among children and adolescents. In ordinary least squares (OLS) models, they find significant effects in most specifications. 4 3 According to the Centers for Disease Control, obesity and excessive weight gain are independently associated with poor pregnancy outcomes. Recommended weight gain is lower for obese women than in others. (http://www. cdc.gov/pednss/how_to/read_a_data_table/prevalence_tables/birth_outcome. htm) 4 They also estimate instrumental variables (IV) models using the price of advertising as an instrument. However, while they find a significant â€Å"first stage†, they do not report the IV estimates because tests 6 Still, a recent review of the considerable epidemiological literature about the relationship between fast food and obesity (Rosenheck, 2008) concluded that â€Å"Findings from observational studies as yet are unable to demonstrate a causal link between fast food consumption and weight gain or obesity†. Most epidemiological studies have longitudinal designs in which large groups of participants are tracked over a period of time and changes in their body mass index (BMI) are correlated with baseline measures of fast food consumption. These studies typically find a positive link between obesity and fast food consumption. However, existing observational studies cannot rule out potential confounders such as lack of physical activity, consumption of sugary beverages, and so on. food. 5 There is also a rapidly growing economics literature on obesity, reviewed in Philipson and Posner (2008). Economic studies place varying amounts of emphasis on increased caloric consumption as a primary determinant of obesity (a trend that is consistent with the increased availability of fast food). Using data from the NLSY, Lakdawalla and Philipson (2002) conclude that about 40% of the increase in obesity from 1976 to 1994 is attributable to lower food prices (and increased consumption) while the remainder is due to reduced physical activity in market and home production. Bleich et al. (2007) examine data from several developed countries and conclude that increased caloric intake is the main contributor to obesity. Cutler et al. (2003) examine food diaries as well as time use data from the last few decades and conclude that rising obesity is linked to increased caloric intake and not to reduced energy expenditure. 6 7 Moreover, all of these studies rely on self-reported consumption of fast suggest that advertising exposure is not endogenous. They also estimate, but do not report individual fixed effects models, because these models have much larger standard errors than the ones reported. 5 A typical question is of the form â€Å"How often do you eat food from a place like McDonald’s, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Pizza Hut, Burger King or some other fast food restaurant? † 6 They suggest that the increased caloric intake is from greater frequency of snacking, and not from increased portion sizes at restaurants or fattening meals at fast food restaurants. They further suggest that technological change has lowered the time cost of food preparation which in turn has lead to more frequent consumption of food. Finally, they speculate that people with self control problems are over-consuming in response to the fall in the time cost of food preparation. Cawley (1999) discusses a similar behavioral theory of obesity as a consequence of addiction. 7 Courtemanche and Carden examine the impact on obesity of Wal-Mart and warehouse club retailers such as Sam’s club, Costco and BJ’s wholesale club which compete on price. They link store location data to individual data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS. ) They find that non-grocery selling Wal-Mart stores reduce weight while non-grocery selling stores and warehouse clubs either reduce weight or have no effect. Their explanation is that reduced prices for everyday purchases expand real 7 A series of recent papers explicitly focus on fast food restaurants as potential contributors to obesity. Chou et al. (2004) estimate models combining state-level price data with individual demographic and weight data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance surveys and find a positive association between obesity and the per capita number of restaurants (fast food and others) in the state. Rashad, Grossman, and Chou (2005) present similar findings using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Anderson and Butcher (2005) investigate the effect of school food policies on the BMI of adolescent students using data from the NLSY97. They assume that variation in financial pressure on schools across counties provides exogenous variation in availability of junk food in the schools. They find that a 10 percentage point increase in the probability of access to junk food at school can lead to about 1 percent increase in students BMI. Anderson, Butcher and Schanzenbach (2007) examine the elasticity of children’s BMI with respect to mother’s BMI and find that it has increased over time, suggesting an increased role for environmental factors in child obesity. Anderson, Butcher, and Levine (2003) find that maternal employment is related to childhood obesity, and speculate that employed mothers might spend more on fast food. Cawley and Liu (2007) use time use data and find that employed women spend less time cooking and are more likely to purchase prepared foods. The paper that is closest to ours is a recent study by Anderson and Matsa (2009) that focuses on the link between eating out and obesity using the presence of Interstate highways in rural areas as an instrument for restaurant density. Interstate highways increase restaurant density for communities adjacent to highways, reducing the travel costs of eating out for people in these communities. They find no evidence of a causal link between restaurants and obesity. Using data from the USDA, they argue that the lack of an effect is due to the presence of selection bias in restaurant patrons –people who eat out also consume more calories when they eat at homeand the fact that large portions at restaurants are offset by lower caloric intake at other times of the day. Our paper differs from Anderson and Matsa (2009) in four important dimensions, and these four differences are likely to explain the difference in our findings. incomes, enabling households to substitute away from cheap unhealthy foods to more expensive but healthier alternatives. 8 (i) First, our data allow us to distinguish between fast food restaurants and other restaurants. We can therefore estimate separately the impact of fast-foods and of other restaurants on obesity. In contrast, Anderson and Matsa do not have data on fast food restaurants and therefore focus on the effect of any restaurant on obesity. This difference turns out to be crucial, because when we estimate the effect of any restaurant on obesity using our data we also find no discernible effect on obesity. (ii) Second, we have a very large sample that allows us to identify even small effects, such as mean increases of 50 grams in the weight gain of mothers during pregnancy. Our estimates of weight gain for mothers are within the confidence interval of Anderson and Matsa’s two stage least squares estimates. Put differently, based on their sample size, our statistically significant estimates would have been considered statistically insignificant. (iii) Third, our data give us the exact location of each restaurant, school and mother. The spatial richness of our data allows us to examine the effect of fast food restaurants on obesity at a very detailed geographical level. For example, we can distinguish the effect at . 1 miles from the effect at . 25 miles. As it turns out, this feature is quite important, because the effects that we find are geographically extremely localized. For example, we find that fast food restaurant have an effect on 9th graders only for distances of . 1 miles or less. By contrast, Anderson and Matsa use a city as the level of geographical analysis. It is not surprising that at this level of aggregation the estimated effect is zero. (iv) Fourth, Anderson and Matsa’s identification strategy differs from ours, since we do not use an instrument for fast-food availability and focus instead on changes in the availability of fast-foods at very close distances. The populations under consideration are also different, and may react differently to proximity to a fast food restaurant. Anderson and Matsa focus on predominantly white rural communities, while we focus on primarily urban 9th graders and urban mothers. We document that the effects vary considerable depending on race, with blacks and Hispanics having the largest effect. Indeed, when Dunn (2008) uses an instrumental variables approach similar to the one used Anderson and Matsa based on proximity to freeways, he finds no effect for rural areas and for 9 whites in suburban areas, but strong effect for blacks and Hispanics. As we show below, we also find stronger effects for minorities. Taken together, these four differences lead us to conclude that the evidence in Anderson and Matsa is consistent with our evidence. 8 In summary, there is strong evidence of correlations between fast food consumption and obesity. It has been more difficult to demonstrate a causal role for fast food. In this paper we tap new data in an attempt to test the causal connection between fast food and obesity. 3. Data Sources and Summary Statistics Data for this project comes from three sources. (a) School Data. Data on children comes from the California public schools for the years 1999 and 2001 to 2007. The observations for 9th graders, which we focus on in this paper, represent 3. 06 million student-year observations. In the spring, California 9th graders are given a fitness assessment, the FITNESSGRAM ®. Data is reported at the class level in the form of the percentage of students who are obese, and who have acceptable levels of abdominal strength, aerobic capacity, flexibility, trunk strength, and upper body strength. Obesity is measured using actual body fat measures, which are considerably more accurate than the usual BMI measure (Cawley and Burkhauser, 2006). Data is also reported for sub-groups within the school (e. g. by race and gender) provided the cells have at least 10 students. Since grade 9 is the first year of high school and the fitness tests take place in the Spring, this impact corresponds to approximately 30 weeks of fast-food exposure. 9 This administrative data set is merged to information about schools (including the percent black, white, Hispanic, and Asian, percent immigrant, pupil/teacher ratios, fraction eligible for free lunch etc. ) from the National Center for Education Statistic’s Common Core of Data, as well as to the Start test scores for the 9th grade. The location of the school was also geocoded using ArcView. Finally, we merged in information. 8 9 See also Brennan and carpenter (2009). In very few cases, a high school is in the same location as a middle school, in which case the estimates reflect a longer-term impact of fast-food. 10 about the nearest Census block group of the school from the 2000 Census including the median earnings, percent high-school degree, percent unemployed, and percent urban. (b) Mothers Data. Data on mothers come from Vital Statistics Natality data from Michigan, New Jersey, and Texas. These data are from birth certificates, and cover all births in these states from 1989 to 2003 (from 1990 in Michigan). For these three states, we were able to gain access to confidential data including mothers names, birth dates, and addresses, which enabled us both to construct a panel data set linking births to the same mother over time, and to geocode her location (again using ArcView). The Natality data are very rich, and include information about the mother’s age, education, race and ethnicity; whether she smoked during pregnancy; the child’s gender, birth order, and gestation; whether it was a multiple birth; and maternal weight gain. We restrict the sample to singleton births and to mothers with at least two births in the sample, for a total of over 3. 5 million births. (c) Restaurant Data. Restaurant data with geo-coding information come from the National Establishment Time Series Database (Dun and Bradstreet). These data are used by all major banks, lending institutions, insurance and finance companies as the primary system for creditworthiness assessment of firms. As such, it is arguably more precise and comprehensive than yellow pages and business directories. 10 We obtained a panel of virtually all firms in Standard Industrial Classification 58 from 1990 to 2006, with names and addresses. Using this data, we constructed several different measures of â€Å"fast food† and â€Å"other restaurants,† as discussed further in Appendix 1. In this paper, the benchmark definition of fast-food restaurants includes only the top-10 fast-food chains, namely, Mc Donalds, Subway, Burger King, Taco Bell, Pizza Hut, Little Caesars, KFC, Wendy’s, Dominos Pizza, and Jack In The Box. We also show estimates using a broader definition that includes both chain restaurants and independent burger and pizza restaurants. Finally, we also measure the supply of non-fast food restaurants. The definition of â€Å"other restaurants† changes with the definition of fast food. Appendix Table 1 lists the top 10 fast food chains as well as examples of restaurants that we did not classify as fast food. The yellow pages are not intended to be a comprehensive listing of businesses they are a paid advertisement. Companies that do not pay are not listed. 10 11 Matching. Matching was performed using information on latitude and longitude of restaurant location. Specifically, we match the schools and mother’s residence to the closest restaurants using ArcView software. For the school data, we match the results on testing for the spring of year t with restaurant availability in year t-1. For the mother data, we match the data on weight gain during pregnancy with restaurant availability in the year that overlaps the most with the pregnancy. Summary Statistics. Using the data on restaurant, school, and mother’s locations, we constructed indicators for whether there are fast food or other restaurants within . 1, . 25, and . 5 miles of either the school or the mother’s residence. Table 1a shows summary characteristics of the schools data set by distance to a fast food restaurant. Here, as in most of the paper, we use the narrow definition of fast-food, including the top-10 fast-food chains. Relatively few schools are within . 1 miles of a fast food restaurant, and the characteristics of these schools are somewhat different than those of the average California school. Only 7% of schools have a fast food restaurant within . 1 miles, while 65% of all schools have a fast food restaurant within 1/2 of a mile. 11 Schools within . 1 miles of a fast food restaurant have more Hispanic students, a slightly higher fraction of students eligible for free lunch, and lower test scores. They are also located in poorer and more urban areas. The last row indicates that schools near a fast food restaurant have a higher incidence of obese students than the average California school. Table 1b shows a similar summary of the mother data. Again, mothers who live near fast food restaurants have different characteristics than the average mother. They are younger, less educated, more likely to be black or Hispanic, and less likely to be married. 4. Empirical Analysis We begin in Section 4. 1 by describing our econometric models and our identifying assumptions. In Section 4. 2 we show the correlation between restaurant location and student characteristics for the school sample, and the correlation between The average school in our sample had 4 fast foods within 1 mile and 24 other restaurants within the same radius. 11 12 restaurant location and mother characteristics for the mother sample. Our empirical estimates for students and mothers are in Section 4. 3 and 4. 4, respectively. 13 4. 1 Econometric Specifications Our empirical specification for schools is (1) Yst = ? F1st + ? F25st + ? F50st + ? ’ N1st + ? ’ N25st + ? ’ N50st + ? Xst + ? Zst + ds + est where Yst is the fraction of students in school s in a given grade who are obese in year t; F1st is an indicator equal to 1 if there is a fast food restaurant within . 1 mile from the school in year t; F25st is an indicator equal to 1 if there is a fast food restaurant within . 25 miles from the school in year t; F50st is an indicator equal to 1 if there is a fast food restaurant within . 5 mile from the school in year t; N1st, N25st and N50st are similar indicators for the presence of non-fast food restaurants within . 1, . 25 and . 5 miles from the school; ds is a fixed effect for the school. The vectors Xst and Zst include school and neighborhood time-varying characteristics that can potentially affect obesity rates. Specifically, Xst is a vector of school-grade specific characteristics including fraction blacks, fraction native Americans, fraction Hispanic, fraction immigrants, fraction female, fraction eligible for free lunch, whether the school is qualified for Title I funding, pupil/teacher ratio, and 9th grade tests scores, as well as school-district characteristics such as fraction immigrants, fraction of non-English speaking students (LEP/ELL), share of IEP students. Zst is a vector of characteristics of the Census block closest to the school including median income, median earnings, average household size, median rent, median housing value, percent white, percent black, percent Asian, percent.

Technological Analysis of Spain

Technological Analysis of Spain Technological analysis Spain has been slow to adopt technological advancements compared to the other European countries, even though Spain performs well in knowledge creation, the innovation climate in Spain has not been ready. The situation has occurred because of the larger role of the public sector with respect to RD development. The private sector has limited participation in enhancing RD levels in the country. Spain need to unified RD policy across regions as the autonomy of regional governments with respect to the RD policy which led to lack of innovative practices. The increase in the number of authorities and the diversity of funding programs in Spain has increased the innovative system. However, the level of coordination among different levels must improve. Spain ranks 16th on the European innovation index in a list of 27 nations. Spain total expenditure on RD as a percentage of GDP stood at around 1.2 percent in 2007 to 2008. Spain has set a target to reach the RD expenditure level of 2% of GDP by 2010, which is well below the 3% target fixed by Lisbon agreement for the European nations. It is expected that Spain government under the program of INGENIO 2010 will help in raising the private sector expenditure on RD to 55% of total investment by 2010, as well as improving the overall innovation climate of Spain. Spain government has initiated measures to address the expected in innovation by revamping introducing new technologies and the educational system. The lack of innovation and entrepreneurship has emerged because of a low percentage of SMEs getting involved in innovation and co-operation, along with the low participation of the private sector and venture capitalists. Below show the analysis of Spain’s technology landscape a ccording to Datamonitor. Current strengths Well-developed ICT sector Spain has a strong communications equipment market. The Spanish communications equipment market generated total among of revenues of $521.2 billion in 2008, it representing a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9.7 percent for the period spanning 2004 to 2008. In 2013, the Spanish communications equipment market is forecast to have a value of $577 million, an increase of 10.7 percent since 2008. Electricals and electronics retailers proved the most cost-effective distributors for the Spanish communications equipment market in 2008, generating total among of revenues of $249.8 million, equivalent to 47.9 percent of the markets overall value. The country’s strong communication equipment market is expected to post positive growth rates in the medium term. Well-developed infrastructure Spain has a well-developed infrastructure to facilitate development of technology-intensive industries. Besides, the railways system is one of the best in Western Europe. Base on the Datamonitor, in 2008, the Spanish railway system covered 15,288 km, and 8,847 km of the area which were electrified. Air and water transport are also well developed with around 55 state-owned general interest ports and 58 commercial airports. Current challenges Gross expenditure on RD remains low Spain total expenditure on RD (as a percentage of GDP) stood at 1.2 percent in 2007, which is much less than that of other developed nations. In comparison, France’s expenditure was 2.13 percent of the GDP, 3.18 percent in Japan, 2.68 percent for the US, and 1.8 percent for Canada during the same year. The low expenditure on RD has restricted related some activities in Spain. With the increase in the Spanish access to the European technology fund and innovation budget which aims at meeting the financing needs of research, the development and innovation of enterprises, it will be an improvement in the funding of RD activities. Involvement of the private sector The RD activities in Spain have been led by the public sector and with a little involvement from the private sector. The lack of innovation and entrepreneurship has emerged because of a low percentage of SMEs getting involved in cooperation, innovation, and the low participation of venture capitalists and the private sector. The government focused on more of the technological expansion of existing large firms rather than early stage investments for startups. Future prospects Government policies promoting RD Base on the Datamonitor, Spain government has taken several initiatives, which include the adoption of liberal policies to promote RD activity in Spain country, and it has drawn up a new legislative framework for RD. It has been taking measures to expand the RD infrastructure and to improve the operations of all agencies involved in the system. Spain government has set a target to increase the RD expenditure (as a percentage of GDP) to 2 percent by the end of 2010, from 1.2 percent in 2007. The private sector of Spain contribution to RD expenditure is expected to be 55 percent of total expenditure by 2010. Significant opportunities in energy and ICT sector Spain presented significant opportunities in the ICT and emerging sectors of energy. The process of liberalization of the energy market was started in 1998 and by 2003 it brought major changes to the electricity sector and consumers were allowed to purchase power freely in the open market. Spain government has shifted its focus to renewable energy under the Promotion of Renewable Energy plan (2005 to 2010). Spain government also approved the Action Plan for the Spanish Strategy of Energy Efficiency to increase investment in renewable energy technology. Spain has achieved its 29.4 percent target for renewable energy in 2009, even though the target was set for 2010 by the European. Spain government’s energy plans include greater reliance on hydroelectricity and wind energy. In the telecoms segment, a number of IT sub sectors have been opened to private players. Mobile telephony, broadband services and broadcast equipment (such as Wi-Fi) are the growing segments, as the sector is being gradually opened up for competition. Future risks Lack of innovation and low number of patents The low level of innovation in Spain is influenced by the low number of patents registered. Although the number of patents is increasing, it is still far behind the levels compare with other European nations. It compares poorly to some European and developed countries, as show in the table below. A continuation of the trend is likely to hamper the scientific prospects of the country. Spain was ranked 16th according to the European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS) 2008 among the list of 27 European countries. The private sector RD expenditure lags behind the European average by 45 percent and the rate of patenting is below the European average by 20 percent.

Federalists and Anti-Federalists Essay -- History Historical Politics

The Constitution, when first introduced, set the stage for much controversy in the United States. The two major parties in this battle were the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. The Federalists, such as James Madison, were in favor of ratifying the Constitution. On the other hand, the Anti-Federalists, such as Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, were against ratification. Each party has their own beliefs on why or why not this document should or should not be passed. These beliefs are displayed in the following articles: Patrick Henry's "Virginia Should Reject the Constitution," Richard Henry Lee's "The Constitution Will Encourage Aristocracy," James Madison's "Federalist Paper No. 10," and "The Letters to Brutus." In these documents, many aspects of the Constitution, good and bad, are discussed. Although the Federalists and Anti-Federalists had very conflicting views, many common principals are discussed throughout their essays. The preservation of liberty and the effec ts of human nature are two aspects of these similarities. Although the similarities exist, they represent and support either the views of the Federalists or the Anti-Federalists. Patrick Henry makes his views very clear in his Letter. He is obviously against ratifying the Constitution. His main argument's consists of the sovereignty of the states, the system of checks and balances and the senate, the leaning towards a monarchy, and absolute power. Henry thinks that the uniting of all the states under one government would take away the sovereignty of the states. He states that, "Here is a resolution as radical as that which separated us from Great Britain. It is radical in this transition; our rights and privileges are endangered, and the sove... ...he other hand, Madison discusses the topic of liberty in that it is what fuels factions. He says that removing liberty is one of the only ways to destroy a faction. He proceeds to state that this is not probable, and that factions can not be destroyed, but we must control their consequences in order to have a stable government. Madison believes that the Constitution preserves man's liberty by fairly representing them in a central government. All of the topics discussed in these essays are very relevant to their respective causes. They are all backed up with valid information and examples. These essay's were written by very respectable men and show much insight on the subject of whether or not the Constitution should be ratified. The Federalists and Anti-Federalists had very opposing views, but used some of the same topics to support their point of views.